Art of the Reformation Art of the Catholic Reformation

Hans Holbein the Younger's Noli me tangere a relatively rare Protestant oil painting of Christ from the Reformation period. It is small-scale, and generally naturalistic in style, avoiding iconic elements like the halo, which is barely discernible.

The Protestant Reformation during the 16th century in Europe well-nigh entirely rejected the existing tradition of Cosmic art, and very ofttimes destroyed as much of it as it could reach. A new artistic tradition developed, producing far smaller quantities of art that followed Protestant agendas and diverged drastically from the southern European tradition and the humanist art produced during the High Renaissance. The Lutheran churches, as they developed, accepted a express function for larger works of art in churches,^{[one] [2]} and as well encouraged prints and volume illustrations. Calvinists remained steadfastly opposed to art in churches, and suspicious of small printed images of religious subjects, though more often than not fully accepting secular images in their homes.

In plow, the Catholic Counter-Reformation both reacted against and responded to Protestant criticisms of art in Roman Catholicism to produce a more stringent style of Cosmic art. Protestant religious art both embraced Protestant values and assisted in the proliferation of Protestantism, but the amount of religious fine art produced in Protestant countries was hugely reduced. Artists in Protestant countries diversified into secular forms of art like history painting, landscape painting, portrait painting and still life.

Art and the Reformation [edit]

The Protestant Reformation was a religious movement that occurred in Western Europe during the 16th century that resulted in a divide in Christianity between Roman Catholics and Protestants. This movement "created a North-S carve up in Europe, where generally Northern countries became Protestant, while Southern countries remained Catholic."^[3]

The Reformation produced two main branches of Protestantism; 1 was the Evangelical Lutheran churches, which followed the teachings of Martin Luther, and the other the Reformed Churches, which followed the ideas of John Calvin and Huldrych Zwingli. Out of these branches grew iii main sects, the Lutheran tradition, too as the Continental Reformed and Anglican traditions, the latter ii post-obit the Reformed (Calvinist) organized religion.^[4] Lutherans and Reformed Christians had dissimilar views regarding religious imagery.^{[v] [2]}

Martin Luther in Germany immune and encouraged the display of a restricted range of religious imagery in churches, seeing the Evangelical Lutheran Church as a continuation of the "aboriginal, churchly church".^[ii] The utilise of images was one of the bug where Luther strongly opposed the more than radical Andreas Karlstadt. For a few years Lutheran altarpieces like the Last Supper by the younger Cranach were produced in Germany, especially past Luther's friend Lucas Cranach, to replace Cosmic ones, frequently containing portraits of leading reformers every bit the apostles or other protagonists, but retaining the traditional depiction of Jesus. As such, "Lutheran worship became a circuitous ritual choreography set up in a richly furnished church interior."^[1] Lutherans continued the utilize of the crucifix every bit it highlighted their loftier view of the Theology of the Cross.^{[2] [6]} Stories grew up of "indestructible" images of Luther, that had survived fires, by divine intervention.^[7] Thus, for Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious prototype."^[8]

On the other manus, there was a moving ridge of iconoclasm, or the destruction of religious imagery. This began very early in the Reformation, when students in Erfurt destroyed a wooden altar in the Franciscan friary in December 1521.^[9] Afterward, Reformed Christianity showed consistent hostility to religious images, as idolatry, especially sculpture and large paintings. Book illustrations and prints were more acceptable, because they were smaller and more private. Reformed leaders, especially Huldrych Zwingli and John Calvin, actively eliminated imagery from churches within the command of their followers, and regarded the great majority of religious images as idolatrous.^[10] Early on Calvinists were even suspicious of portraits of clergy; Christopher Hales (soon to be one of the Marian exiles) tried to have portraits of six divines sent to him from Zurich, and felt information technology necessary to explicate his motives in a alphabetic character of 1550: "this is non washed ....with a view to making idols of you; they are desired for the reasons which I have mentioned, and not for the sake of honour or veneration".^[11]

The devastation was oftentimes extremely divisive and traumatic within communities, an unmistakable physical manifestation, frequently imposed from above, that could non be ignored. Information technology was merely for this reason that reformers favoured a unmarried dramatic insurrection, and many premature acts in this line sharply increased subsequent hostility betwixt Catholics and Calvinists in communities – for it was more often than not at the level of the urban center, boondocks or hamlet that such actions occurred, except in England and Scotland.

But reformers frequently felt impelled by potent personal convictions, equally shown by the case of Frau Göldli, on which Zwingli was asked to suggest. She was a Swiss lady who had once made a hope to Saint Apollinaris that if she recovered from an affliction she would donate an image of the saint to a local convent, which she did. Later she turned Protestant, and feeling she must reverse what she now saw as a wrong action, she went to the convent church, removed the statue and burnt information technology. Prosecuted for blasphemy, she paid a small fine without complaint, only flatly refused to pay the additional sum the courtroom ordered be paid to the convent to supercede the statue, putting her at risk of serious penalties. Zwingli'southward letter advised trying to pay the nuns a larger sum on condition they did non replace the statue, but the eventual effect is unknown.^[12] Past the stop of his life, subsequently iconoclastic shows of force became a feature of the early on phases of the French Wars of Religion, fifty-fifty Calvin became alarmed and criticised them, realizing that they had become counter-productive.^[13]

Daniel Hisgen's paintings are mostly cycles on the parapets of Lutheran church galleries. Here the Creation (left) to the Declaration can be seen.

Subjects prominent in Cosmic fine art other than Jesus and events in the Bible, such as Mary and saints were given much less emphasis or disapproved of in Protestant theology. As a outcome, in much of northern Europe, the Church building about ceased to commission figurative fine art, placing the dictation of content entirely in the hands of the artists and lay consumers. Calvinism fifty-fifty objected to non-religious funerary fine art, such equally the heraldry and effigies beloved of the Renaissance rich.^[14] Where in that location was religious fine art, iconic images of Christ and scenes from the Passion became less frequent, as did portrayals of the saints and clergy. Narrative scenes from the Bible, particularly equally book illustrations and prints, and, after, moralistic depictions of mod life were preferred. Both Cranachs painted allegorical scenes setting out Lutheran doctrines, in detail a series on Police and Gospel. Daniel Hisgen, a German language Rococo painter of the 18th century in Upper Hesse, specialized in cycles of biblical paintings decorating the front of the gallery parapet in Lutheran churches with an upper gallery, a less prominent position that satisfied Lutheran scruples. Wooden organ cases were likewise often painted with similar scenes to those in Catholic churches.

Lutherans strongly defended their existing sacred fine art from a new wave of Calvinist-on-Lutheran iconoclasm in the second half of the century, as Calvinist rulers or city authorities attempted to impose their will on Lutheran populations in the "Second Reformation" of about 1560–1619.^{[2] [15]} Against the Reformed, Lutherans exclaimed: "Yous blackness Calvinist, yous give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return".^[2] The Beeldenstorm, a large and very disorderly wave of Calvinist mob devastation of Catholic images and church fittings that spread through the Low Countries in the summer of 1566 was the largest outbreak of this sort, with drastic political repercussions.^[16] This campaign of Calvinist iconoclasm "provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs" in Germany and "antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox" in the Baltic region.^[17] Similar patterns to the German deportment, but with the improver of encouragement and sometimes finance from the national regime, were seen in Anglican England in the English Civil War and English Commonwealth in the next century, when more damage was washed to art in medieval parish churches than during the English Reformation.

A major theological difference betwixt Protestantism and Catholicism is the question of transubstantiation, or the literal transformation of the Communion wafer and vino into the torso and claret of Christ, though both Lutheran and Reformed Christians affirmed the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, the quondam as a sacramental spousal relationship and the latter as a pneumatic presence.^[xviii] Protestant churches that were not participating in the iconoclasm often selected as altarpieces scenes depicting the Last Supper. This helped the worshippers to recall their theology backside the Eucharist, as opposed to Catholic churches, which often chose crucifixion scenes for their altarpieces to remind the worshippers that the sacrifice of Christ and the sacrifice of the Mass were one and the same, via the literal transformation of the Eucharist.

The Protestant Reformation likewise capitalized on the popularity of printmaking in northern Europe. Printmaking allowed images to exist mass-produced and widely available to the public at low toll. This allowed for the widespread availability of visually persuasive imagery. The Protestant church was therefore able, as the Catholic Church had been doing since the early 15th century, to bring their theology to the people, and religious education was brought from the church into the homes of the common people, thereby forming a direct link between the worshippers and the divine.

In that location was also a vehement propaganda war fought partly with popular prints past both sides; these were often highly scurrilous caricatures of the other side and their doctrines. On the Protestant side, portraits of the leading reformers were popular, and their likenesses sometimes represented the Apostles and other figures in Biblical scenes such as the Last Supper.

Genre and mural [edit]

After the early years of the reformation, artists in Protestant areas painted far fewer religious subjects for public display, although at that place was a conscious effort to develop a Protestant iconography of Bible illustration in book illustrations and prints. In the early Reformation artists, peculiarly Cranach the Elderberry and Younger and Holbein, made paintings for churches showing the leaders of the reformation in means very similar to Catholic saints. Afterward Protestant sense of taste turned from the display in churches of religious scenes, although some continued to be displayed in homes. At that place was also a reaction against big images from classical mythology, the other manifestation of high style at the time. This brought about a style that was more directly related to accurately portraying the nowadays times. The traditions of landscapes and genre paintings that would fully blossom in the 17th century began during this period.

Peter Bruegel (1525–1569) of Flanders is the great genre painter of his time, who worked for both Catholic and Protestant patrons. In most of his paintings, even when depicting religious scenes, almost space is given to landscape or peasant life in 16th century Flanders. Bruegel's Wedding Feast, portrays a Flemish-peasant wedding dinner in a befouled, which makes no reference to any religious, historical or classical events, and only gives insight into the everyday life of the Flemish peasant. Another great painter of his age, Lucas van Leyden (1489–1533), is known mostly for his engravings, such as The Milkmaid, which depicts peasants with milk cows. This engraving, from 1510, well before the Reformation, contains no reference to religion or classicism, although much of his other work features both.

Bruegel was likewise an accomplished mural painter. Frequently Bruegel painted agronomical landscapes, such as Summer from his famous set of the seasons, where he shows peasants harvesting wheat in the state, with a few workers taking a luncheon break under a nearby tree. This blazon of landscape painting, apparently void of religious or classical connotations, gave nascency to a long line of northern European landscape artists, such as Jacob van Ruisdael.

With the groovy development of the engraving and printmaking market place in Antwerp in the 16th century, the public was provided with accessible and affordable images. Many artists provided drawings to book and impress publishers, including Bruegel. In 1555 Bruegel began working for The Four Winds, a publishing firm owned past Hieronymus Cock. The Four Winds provided the public with near a thousand etchings and engravings over two decades. Betwixt 1555 and 1563 Bruegel supplied Erect with nigh 40 drawings, which were engraved for the Flemish public.

The courtly style of Northern Mannerism in the second one-half of the century has been seen every bit partly motivated by the want of rulers in both the Holy Roman Empire and France to find a style of art that could appeal to members of the courtly aristocracy on both sides of the religious split up.^[nineteen] Thus religious controversy had the rather ironic result of encouraging classical mythology in art, since though they might disapprove, fifty-fifty the most stern Calvinists could not credibly claim that 16th century mythological art actually represented idolatry.

Council of Trent [edit]

During the Reformation a nifty divergence arose between the Catholic Church and the Protestant Reformers of the due north regarding the content and style of art work. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and Reformed iconoclasm equally a threat to the church building and in response came together at the Council of Trent to institute some of their own reforms. The church felt that much religious fine art in Catholic countries (specially Italy) had lost its focus on religious subject-matter, and became likewise interested in material things and decorative qualities. The quango came together periodically between 1545 and 1563. The reforms that resulted from this council are what set the ground for what is known as the Counter-Reformation.

Italian painting after the 1520s, with the notable exception of the art of Venice, developed into Mannerism, a highly sophisticated way, striving for outcome, that concerned many churchman every bit lacking entreatment for the mass of the population. Church pressure level to restrain religious imagery affected art from the 1530s and resulted in the decrees of the final session of the Council of Trent in 1563 including short and rather inexplicit passages concerning religious images, which were to take great impact on the evolution of Catholic art. Previous Catholic Church councils had rarely felt the demand to pronounce on these matters, dissimilar Orthodox ones which have often ruled on specific types of images.

Statements are oft made along the lines of "The decrees of the Council of Trent stipulated that art was to be straight and compelling in its narrative presentation, that it was to provide an accurate presentation of the biblical narrative or saint'southward life, rather than adding incidental and imaginary moments, and that it was to encourage piety",^[20] but in fact the actual decrees of the council were far less explicit than this, though all of these points were probably in line with their intentions. The very short passage dealing with art came only in the concluding session in 1563, equally a concluding minute and little-discussed improver, based on a French typhoon. The decree confirmed the traditional doctrine that images merely represented the person depicted, and that veneration to them was paid to the person themself, not the image, and farther instructed that:

...every superstition shall exist removed ... all lasciviousness be avoided; in such wise that figures shall not be painted or adorned with a dazzler exciting to lust... there be nothing seen that is hell-raising, or that is unbecomingly or confusedly bundled, cipher that is profane, nothing indecorous, seeing that holiness becometh the firm of God. And that these things may exist the more faithfully observed, the holy Synod ordains, that no one exist immune to place, or cause to be placed, any unusual paradigm, in whatsoever place, or church, howsoever exempted, except that image accept been canonical of by the bishop ...^[21]

The number of decorative treatments of religious subjects declined sharply, every bit did "unbecomingly or confusedly bundled" Mannerist pieces, as a number of books, notably by the Flemish theologian Molanus, Saint Charles Borromeo and Primal Gabriele Paleotti, and instructions by local bishops, amplified the decrees, often going into minute item on what was acceptable. Many traditional iconographies considered without adequate scriptural foundation were in effect prohibited, as was any inclusion of classical pagan elements in religious art, and virtually all nudity, including that of the babe Jesus.^[22] Co-ordinate to the peachy medievalist Émile Mâle, this was "the decease of medieval art".^[23]

Art and the Counter-Reformation [edit]

While Calvinists largely removed public fine art from religion and Reformed societies moved towards more than "secular" forms of art which might be said to glorify God through the portrayal of the "natural beauty of His cosmos and by depicting people who were created in His image",^[24] Counter-Reformation Catholic church continued to encourage religious art, but insisted it was strictly religious in content, glorifying God and Cosmic traditions, including the sacraments and the saints.^[25] Also, "Lutheran places of worship comprise images and sculptures not but of Christ but also of biblical and occasionally of other saints as well as prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained drinking glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern architecture, carved or otherwise embellished chantry pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere."^[26] The master difference between Lutheran and Roman Cosmic places of worship was the presence of the tabernacle in the latter.^[26]

Sydney Joseph Freedberg, who invented the term Counter-Maniera, cautions against connecting this more austere style in religious painting, which spread from Rome from about 1550, too directly with the decrees of Trent, equally it pre-dates these by several years. He describes the decrees as "a codifying and official sanction of a temper that had come up to be conspicuous in Roman culture".^[27]

Scipione Pulzone's (1550–1598) painting of the Lamentation which was commissioned for the Church of the Gesù in 1589 is a Counter-Maniera work that gives a clear demonstration of what the holy council was striving for in the new style of religious art. With the focus of the painting giving direct attention to the crucifixion of Christ, it complies with the religious content of the council and shows the story of the passion while keeping Christ in the image of the platonic homo.

X years after the Council of Trent's decree Paolo Veronese was summoned by the Inquisition to explain why his Last Supper, a huge canvass for the refectory of a monastery, contained, in the words of the Inquisition: "buffoons, drunken Germans, dwarfs and other such scurrilities" likewise equally extravagant costumes and settings, in what is indeed a fantasy version of a Venetian patrician feast.^[28] Veronese was told that he must change his indecorous painting within a three-month catamenia – in fact he merely changed the title to The Banquet in the House of Levi, still an episode from the Gospels, merely a less doctrinally central i, and no more was said.^[29] No doubt whatever Protestant government would accept been equally disapproving. The pre-existing decline in "donor portraits" (those who had paid for an altarpiece or other painting being placed inside the painting) was also accelerated; these become rare after the Council.

Repentance of Peter by El Greco, 1580–1586.

Farther waves of "Counter-Reformation art" occurred when areas formerly Protestant were again brought nether Catholic rule. The churches were normally empty of images, and such periods could represent a blast time for artists. The best known instance is the new Spanish Netherlands (substantially mod Belgium), which had been the eye of Protestantism in the Netherlands but became (initially) exclusively Catholic after the Castilian drove the Protestants to the north, where they established the United Provinces. Rubens was ane of a number of Flemish Baroque painters who received many commissions, and produced several of his best known works re-filling the empty churches.^[30] Several cities in France in the French wars of religion and in Federal republic of germany, Bohemia and elsewhere in the Thirty Years War saw like bursts of restocking.

The rather extreme pronouncement by a synod in Antwerp in 1610 that in future the central panels of altarpieces should just testify New Testament scenes was certainly ignored in the cases of many paintings by Rubens and other Flemish artists (and in item the Jesuits continued to commission altarpieces centred on their saints), but notwithstanding New Testament subjects probably did increment.^[31] Altarpieces became larger and more easy to make out from a distance, and the large painted or gilded carved wooden altarpieces that were the pride of many northern tardily medieval cities were ofttimes replaced with paintings.^[32]

Some subjects were given increased prominence to reverberate Counter-Reformation emphases. The Repentance of Peter, showing the end of the episode of the Denial of Peter, was not often seen before the Counter-Reformation, when information technology became popular as an assertion of the sacrament of Confession confronting Protestant attacks. This followed an influential book by the Jesuit Cardinal Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621). The image typically shows Peter in tears, as a half-length portrait with no other figures, often with hands clasped every bit at right, and sometimes "the cock" in the background; it was often coupled with a repentant Mary Magdalen, another exemplar from Bellarmine'southward book.^[33]

Equally the Counter-Reformation grew stronger and the Catholic Church felt less threat from the Protestant Reformation, Rome one time again began to assert its universality to other nations effectually the world. The religious order of the Jesuits or the Social club of Jesus, sent missionaries to the Americas, parts of Africa, India and east asia and used the arts as an constructive means of articulating their message of the Catholic Church'south dominance over the Christian faith. The Jesuits' impact was and then profound during their missions of the time that today very similar styles of art from the Counter-Reformation period in Catholic Churches are found all over the world.

Despite the differences in approaches to religious fine art, stylistic developments passed near every bit chop-chop across religious divisions as within the two "blocs". Artistically Rome remained in closer impact with the Netherlands than with Spain.

Notes [edit]

1. ^ ^{a b} Spicer, Andrew (5 December 2016). Lutheran Churches in Early Mod Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 237. ISBN9781351921169. Every bit information technology developed in north-eastern Deutschland, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography ready in a richly furnished church interior. This much is axiomatic from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (come across Figure v.v.).
2. ^ ^{a b c d eastward f} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593. Lutherans connected to worship in pre-Reformation churches, mostly with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Frg to this day ane finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Cosmic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of medieval fine art and compages survived. Joseph Leo Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend besides as reform the use of images. "An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments" (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came non from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: "Yous black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to nail you and your Calvinist priests in return" (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, frequently including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's theologia crucis. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate chantry-pieces are largely absent; in that location are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.
3. ^ The Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Historicist and Causes of the Reformation. New Advent.
4. ^ Picken, Stuart D.B. (16 December 2011). Historical Dictionary of Calvinism. Scarecrow Press. p. one. ISBN9780810872240. While Germany and the Scandinavian countries adopted the Lutheran model of church building and state, France, Switzerland, kingdom of the netherlands, Hungary, what is now the Czech Republic, and Scotland created Reformed Churches based, in varying ways, on the model Calvin set up in Geneva. Although England pursued the Reformation platonic in its own way, leading to the germination of the Anglican Communion, the theology of the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England were heavily influenced past Calvinism.
5. ^ Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000). Holbein and the Reformation of Art. University of California, Berkeley.
6. ^ Marquardt, Janet T.; Jordan, Alyce A. (xiv January 2009). Medieval Art and Compages later the Eye Ages. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71. ISBN9781443803984. In fact, Lutherans often justified their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Eye Ages, as is axiomatic from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church building of Doberan.
7. ^ Michalski, 89
8. ^ Dixon, C. Scott (9 March 2012). Battling the Reformation. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146. ISBN9781118272305. According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
9. ^ Noble, 19, note 12
10. ^ Institutes, one:11, department 7 on crosses
11. ^ Campbell, Lorne, Renaissance Portraits, European Portrait-Painting in the 14th, 15th and 16th Centuries, p. 193, 1990, Yale, ISBN 0300046758; Hales was the brother of John Hales (died 1572)
12. ^ Michalski, 87-88
13. ^ Michalski, 73-74
14. ^ Michalski, 72-73
15. ^ Michalski, 84. Google books
16. ^ Kleiner, Fred South. (1 Jan 2010). Gardner'south Art through the Ages: A Curtailed History of Western Art. Cengage Learning. p. 254. ISBN9781424069224. In an episode known as the Nifty Iconoclasm, bands of Calvinists visited Catholic churches in holland in 1566, shattering stained-glass windows, smashing statues, and destroying paintings and other artworks they perceived equally idolatrous.
17. ^ Marshall, Peter (22 October 2009). The Reformation. Oxford University Press. p. 114. ISBN9780191578885. Iconoclastic incidents during the Calvinist 'Second Reformation' in Deutschland provoked reactive riots by Lutheran mobs, while Protestant image-breaking in the Baltic region deeply antagonized the neighbouring Eastern Orthodox, a group with whom reformers might have hoped to make mutual cause.
18. ^ Mattox, Mickey 50.; Roeber, A. G. (27 February 2012). Changing Churches: An Orthodox, Cosmic, and Lutheran Theological Conversation. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 54. ISBN9780802866943. In this "sacramental wedlock," Lutherans taught, the torso and blood of Christ are so truly united to the staff of life and vino of the Holy Communion that the two may be identified. They are at the same time body and claret, bread and wine. This divine food is given, more-over, not merely for the strengthening of faith, nor only equally a sign of our unity in religion, nor merely equally an assurance of the forgiveness of sin. Even more, in this sacrament the Lutheran Christian receives the very trunk and claret of Christ precisely for the strengthening of the spousal relationship of religion. The "real presence" of Christ in the Holy Sacrament is the means past which the matrimony of faith, effected by God's Give-and-take and the sacrament of baptism, is strengthened and maintained. Intimate spousal relationship with Christ, in other words, leads directly to the virtually intimate communion in his holy body and blood.
19. ^ Trevor-Roper, 98-101 on Rudolf, and Potent, Pt. 2, Chapter iii on France, peculiarly pp. 98-101, 112-113.
20. ^ Art in Renaissance Italy. Paoletti, John T., and Gary Grand. Radke. Pg. 514.
21. ^ Text of the 25th prescript of the Council of Trent
22. ^ Blunt Anthony, Artistic Theory in Italian republic, 1450-1660, chapter 8, especially pp. 107-128, 1940 (refs to 1985 edn), OUP, ISBN 0-xix-881050-4
23. ^ The death of Medieval Fine art Excerpt from book past Émile Mâle
24. ^ Fine art of the Reformation and Counter-Reformation. Nosotro, Rit.
25. ^ The Art of the Counter Reformation. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
26. ^ ^{a b} Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017). Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138. ISBN9781442271593.
27. ^ (Sidney) Freedberg, 427–428, 427 quoted
28. ^ "Transcript of Veronese'south testimony". Archived from the original on 2009-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-26 .
29. ^ David Rostand, Painting in Sixteenth-Century Venice: Titian, Veronese, Tintoretto, 2d ed 1997, Cambridge UP ISBN 0-521-56568-v
30. ^ (David) Freedberg, throughout
31. ^ (David) Freedberg, 139-140
32. ^ (David) Freedberg, 141
33. ^ Hall, pp. 10 and 315

References [edit]

• David Freedberg, "Painting and the Counter-Reformation", from the catalogue to The Age of Rubens, 1993, Boston/Toledo, Ohio, online PDF
• Freedburg, Sidney J. Painting in Italian republic, 1500–1600, tertiary edn. 1993, Yale, ISBN 0300055870
• James Hall, A History of Ideas and Images in Italian Art, 1983, John Murray, London, ISBN 0-7195-3971-iv
• Michalski, Sergiusz. Reformation and the Visual Arts: The Protestant Epitome Question in Western and Eastern Europe, Routledge, 1993, ISBN 0-203-41425-X, 9780203414255 Google Books
• Noble, Bonnie (2009). Lucas Cranach the Elder: Art and Devotion of the German Reformation. Academy Press of America. ISBN978-0-7618-4337-five.
• Roy Strong; Art and Power; Renaissance Festivals 1450-1650, 1984, The Boydell Press;ISBN 0-85115-200-7
• Trevor-Roper, Hugh; Princes and Artists, Patronage and Ideology at Four Habsburg Courts 1517-1633, Thames & Hudson, London, 1976, ISBN 0-500-23232-6

Further reading [edit]

• Avalli-Bjorkman, Gorel. "A Bolognese Portrait of a Butcher." The Burlington Magazine 141 (1999).
• Caldwell, Dorigen. "Reviewing Counter-Reformation Art." five Feb. 2007 [1].
• Christensen, Carl C. "Art and the Reformation in Germany." The Sixteenth Century Journal Athens: Ohio UP, 12 (1979): 100.
• Coulton, G G. "Fine art and the Reformation Reviews." Art Message 11 (1928).
• Honig, Elizabeth. Painting and the Marketplace in Early Modern Antwerp. New Haven: Yale UP, 1998.
• Koerner, Joseph Fifty. The Reformation of the Image. London: The Academy of Chicago P, 2004.
• Knipping, John Baptist, Iconography of the Counter Reformation in the netherlands: Heaven on Earth ii vols, 1974
• Mayor, A. Hyatt, "The Art of the Counter Reformation." The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin iv (1945).
• Silver, Larry. Peasant Scenes and Landscapes: the Rise of Pictorial Genres in the Antwerp Art Marketplace. Philadelphia: University Pennsylvania P, 2006.
• Wisse, Jacob. "The Reformation." In Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000- [2] (October 2002).

External links [edit]

• Review of The Reformation of the Paradigm by Joseph Leo Koerner, by Eamon Duffy, London Review of Books

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation

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